Tag Archive for: Islamic Philosophy

The Prophet’s Day in China: A Study of the Inculturation of Islam in China, Based on Fieldwork in Xi’an, Najiaying, and Hezhou

Islam is widely spread throughout every corner of China, with the Hui people, the largest Muslim ethnic group in China, numbering over 10 million people, serving as its main carrier. Their culture types and local features exhibit great diversity across different provinces. The ceremony of Prophet’s Day or Mawlid al-Nabi in China, as one of the three fundamental festivals of the Hui people alongside Eid al-Fitur and Eid al-Qurban, appears to be more comprehensive, open, and localized. Drawing from fieldwork in three Hui communities—Xi’an in Shaanxi province, Najiaying in Yunnan province, and Hezhou in Gansu province—this paper approaches the topic from the perspective of inculturation and cultural innovation. It aims to describe the ritual processes observed in these three different Hui communities and discuss how the Hui people integrate Islam with traditional Chinese culture in their local contexts, with the intention of forming and preserving their own cultural characteristics.

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“Immortality through AI?: Transhumanism, Islamic Philosophy, and the Quest for Spiritual Machines.” In Transhumanism, Immortality, and Religion. Edited by Timothy Knepper. New York: Springer, in press [2026]

This chapter critically engages the transhumanist vision articulated by Ray Kurzweil in works such as The Age of Spiritual Machines (1999), The Singularity Is Near (2005), and The Singularity Is Nearer (2024), wherein he predicts an imminent convergence of human and machine intelligence culminating in the advent of artificial superintelligence (ASI). Central to this vision is the Singularity, a paradigmatic threshold after which technological enhancement purportedly enables the transcendence of biological constraints, including aging and mortality. Drawing on insights from Islamic philosophy, particularly its metaphysical and psychological reflections on consciousness, personhood, and the nature of the self, this chapter interrogates the ontological and ethical assumptions underlying transhumanist discourse. I argue that the viability and desirability of such a posthuman future ultimately rest upon contested conceptions of human nature, agency, and value.

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“Two Types of Inner-Qur’anic Interpretation”, in: Exegetical Crossroads: Understanding Scripture in Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the Pre-Modern Orient, edited by Georges Tamer et al., Berlin: De Gruyter 2018, pp. 253–288

The conference from which the present volume has emerged was entitled Exegetical Crossroads. Unlike other contributions to this book, mine will not examine intersections between post-Biblical and post-Qur’ānic scriptural interpretation in Judaism, Islam, and Christianity; rather, I shall focus on processes of interpretive engagement with Qur’ānic passages that are traceable within the Qur’ān it- self. Yet this, too, will afford us the opportunity to inspect a crossroads of sorts: for one of the respects in which the Qur’ān intersects with Biblical literature is precisely insofar as it contains intriguing cases of scrip-tural self-interpretation. Since that phenomenon is much better researched with regard to the Bible, my main objective here is to present some of the ways in which it manifests itself in the Islamic scripture.² In doing so, I shall draw attention to some salient similarities and differences between the Hebrew Bible and the Qur’ān. My interest is squarely in the Qur’ān, however; I do not pretend to even remotely offer anything resembling a full account of inner-Biblical interpretation

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Of love theory and love poetry in Arabic Sufi Literature : An exploration of al –Shushturi Sufi’s Ecstasy as a paradigm

Love, in Arabic term denotes hubb, iskiq, gariimah, wudd and hawaa. It semantically has more than thirty Arabic words denoting the same meaning.1 It has been a symbolic Interactive expression of feeling that has possessed quantum signi-ficance and values over the passage of time in both animate and inanimate beings. Extant research works on love poetry have been carried out by researchers on its quantum purposes and effects in the socio-cultural, anthropological physiolo-gical, psychological, religious and socio-linguistic and literary arena, in both Arabic and westem literary works. However, there has been sparse attention on the exploration of the love theory and love poetry in Arabic Sufi literature, which has created the gaps to befilled by this research. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the love theory in the love poetry of Ara- bic Sufi literature, using Al- Shushturi Sufi’s Ecstasy as a paradigm. Before delving into the main discussion, the contras-tive discourse between the concept oflove theory and love poetry would be examined. Likewise, the concept of Sufism and ecstasy shall be discussed. Al- Shushturi’s biographical account and scholarship including the review and literary analysis of his Sufi’s poetries would be treated.

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Pleasures—Sensual and Spiritual: A Chapter from Nāṣir-i Khusraw’s Pilgrims’ Provision By Shafique N . Virani

This article offers a translation and analysis of Nāṣir-i Khusraw’s seminal discourse on pleasure from his philosophical treatise The Pilgrims’ Provision (Zād al-musāfirīn), illuminating the intricate interplay between sensual and intellectual delights in Islamic thought. It situates Nāṣir-i Khusraw within the broader intellectual tradition, highlighting his critique of Muḥammad b. Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī’s Epicurean-influenced conception of pleasure as mere relief from pain. Through rigorous refutation, Nāṣir-i Khusraw advances a framework wherein pleasure is a metaphysical phenomenon rooted in the soul’s ascent toward perfection and its reunion with the Universal Intellect. The chapter explores the gradations of pleasure across the natural, vegetative, sentient, and rational realms, culminating in the infinite joy of intellectual realization. Drawing on symbolic interpretation of the Quran, Nāṣir-i Khusraw redefines paradise not as a realm of corporeal indulgence, but as consummate knowledge, and hell as consummate ignorance. The translation is enriched by historical context, philosophical commentary, and poetic excerpts, offering readers a profound meditation on the nature of human fulfillment and the enduring relevance of spiritual pleasure in an age of material excess.

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Desire, Determination and Action in Hayākil al-Nūr: Exploring the Legacy of Suhrawardī in Mughal India (1526-1857)

This paper examines the influence of Suhrawardī’s thought on Mughal intellectual landscape through a case study of the debate on human voluntary actions in Mīr Zāhid’s (d. 1689) super-commentary on Suhrawardī’s (d. 1191) Hayākil al-nūr. Central to this analysis is the relationship between cognitions, desires, and their role in the formation of will. I argue that for Suhrawardī, and subsequently Dawānī (d. 1502), volition is nothing more than an intense desire that dominates the soul. In contrast, Mīr Zāhid differentiates between desire and volition, positing that desire targets the goal of an action (e.g., being nourished), while volition pertains to the act itself (e.g., eating). By situating Mīr Zāhid’s argument within the broader context of engagement with Suhrawardī’s works in Mughal India, this paper contends that the study of the “Ishrāqī” legacy should not be articulated and pursued in terms of full adherence to Suhrawardī’s worldview. Instead, it should focus on how intellectuals in Mughal India responded to his arguments.

Shihāb al-Dīn Yaḥyá ibn Ḥabash ibn Amīrak al-Suhrawardī1 holds a prominent place in the history of Islamic philosophy, and his innovative ideas have left an indelible mark on various facets of philosophical discourse across the Islamicate world, a fact which is underscored by the survival of more than thirty commentaries on his works from Turkey, Iran, and India.2 Within the scope of the present study, which centers on Mughal India (1526–1857), the significance of Suhrawardī’s ideas for understanding the Mughal intellectual landscape

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Mystical language of love in Hamzah Fansuri’s poetry : Sufi poetics in the 16th-century Malay world By Kris Ramlan

This dissertation examines the mystical poetics of love in the works of Hamzah Fansuri (fl. 16th century), widely regarded as the earliest Sufi poet of the Malay world and a foundational figure in Southeast Asian Islamic intellectual history. Through close textual analysis, lexical comparison, and intertextual study, it demonstrates that Hamzah’s writings are not mere adaptations of universal Sufi themes but constitute a distinctively Malay articulation of Akbarian metaphysics. His plurilingual idiom, shaped primarily through Malay and Arabic with traces of Persian and Sanskrit, serves as a performative medium for mystical ontology. Within this idiom, poetic sound, metaphor, and structural recursion function both as aesthetic expression and as epistemic disclosure. The study is divided into two parts. Part I reconstructs Hamzah’s intellectual formation and literary milieu, reassessing his chronology and situating his work within transregional Sufi networks and manuscript traditions. Part II offers the first sustained reading of love in his corpus, developing a typology across three registers—ontological, transformative, and experiential—each underpinned by a lexical-symbolic stratum. It further reconstructs the semantic field of Hamzah’s love lexicon within the wider Malay literary archive, demonstrates how poetic form itself operates as metaphysical pedagogy, and reframes the translation of Arabic Sufi terminology into Malay as a performative act of interlingual mystical articulation. The study also introduces the concept of symbolic transposition to explain how Hamzah reoriented select pre-Islamic motifs toward an Islamic metaphysics of Being and love. The findings show that Hamzah’s poetics enact rather than merely describe mystical realities. His verse creates a literary space in which divine love is experienced as the mode by which Being manifests, veils, and reveals itself. By transposing Sufi metaphysics into Malay, Hamzah expanded its expressive range as a vehicle for mystical thought and positioned Malay literature within a broader cosmopolitan tradition of Islamic poetics.

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al-Haya: The Dignity of Shame By Oludamini Ogunnaike

By Oludamini Ogunnaike

It is perhaps not accidental that the Arabic word and central Islamic concept of ḥayāʾ (often translated as “shame,” “modesty,” or “shyness”) is very difficult to translate into modern English, given the profound differences in the world-senses animating the two discourses. Likewise, the modern English notion of “dignity,” although Islamic sources have played an indirect role in its development,7 does not have a single, exact equivalent in classical Islamic discourse, but ḥayāʾ covers much of the same ground. At first blush this appears to be a paradox, as dignity and shame are often described as oppo- sites: shame has been described as a violation of dignity, and a dignified person is not ashamed. However, even in English, this issue is more complicated, as illustrated by another seeming paradox: shameless people do the most shameful of deeds. Indeed, the early Sufi author al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1072) wrote that “One of the signs of those who possess shame is that one will never see them in a shameful condition.” Thus, in the face of the brazen shameless- ness of recent political and business leaders and practices, numerous social campaigns—from the non-violent, coercive protest movements of Gandhi, mlk Jr., and the Civil Rights movement to the more recent environmental, social justice, and anti-war shame campaigns and boycotts targeting companies to the #MeToo movement—have attempted not only to deploy shame to change behaviors and conditions, but (especially in the cases of Gandhi and the civil rights movement) to reinstitute the principles of moral shame in domains dominated by shamelessness in order to restore or safeguard the dignity of both oppressed and oppressors.

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Attar Some Philosophical and Theological Passages from Fakhr al Din al Razi’s al Sirr al maktum By Muhammad Fariduddin Attar

 have transcribed some interesting passages in Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s work on astral magic, al-Sirr al-maktūm (The Hidden Secret) based on MS Majlis 6853, compared with some other MSS. These passages are taken from the philosophical and theological portions of the work. I also outline the Sirr’s content and method of inquiry. The transcribed passages are part of the core material of a forthcoming article on the place of al-Sirr al-maktūm in Fakhr al-Dīn’s early philosophical thought.

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“Sufism and the Anthropocosmic Self.” In I of the Heart: Texts and Studies in Honor of Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Islamic History and Civilization Series. Edited by M. Faruque, A. Khalil, and M. Rustom. Leiden: Brill, 2025, pp. 3–39.

It would not be an overstatement to say that the strand of thought now called Sufi metaphysics revolves around two interrelated doctrines, namely the oneness of being (waḥdat al-wujūd) and the perfect human (al-insān al-kāmil ). As is well-known, the expression waḥdat al-wujūd is controversial, which is composed of two words—waḥda and wujūd—both of which were important in the Islamic intellectual tradition since early days. The word “waḥda” means “unity or oneness,” and is of the same root as “tawḥīd,” which means “to affirm unity.” As for wujūd, which is from the root w-j-d, it is customary to translate it as Being, being or existence, but what is important to note is that in the Sufi context it is also understood as “to find” or “to experience.” For instance, Ibn ʿArabī (d. 638/1240) defines wujūd as “finding the Real in ecstasy” (wijdān al- ḥaqq fī l-wajd). Thus wujūd also has a mystical, first-person connotation, in addition to its regular ontological reference. In any event, waḥdat al-wujūd refers to the wujūd of the Real (al-ḥaqq), Who is self-evidently wāḥid (one), not to be denied by any Muslim. Hence there can only be one wujūd in reality. Understood thus, waḥdat al-wujūd implies that God or the Ultimate Reality is one, which is the essence of tawḥīd. But Sufi metaphysicians also discuss the complex nature of the muwaḥḥid (read “the perfect human”) or the affirmer of unity in the cosmic order. In doing so, they present a highly sophisticated analysis of the self, which is difficult to describe in simple terms. Building on the pioneering work of William Chittick, who uses the term “anthropocosmic vision” to describe the Islamic worldview, this study will explore the reality of the perfect human in terms of what it calls the “anthropocosmic self.” It will do so by principally drawing upon the School of Ibn ʿArabī and Sufi poets such as Rūmī (d. 672/1273) and Ḥāfiẓ (d. 791/1389).

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Devotion and Metaphysics in a Litany Ascribed to ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī

This article examines the status of Sufi devotional literature, a corpus still rarely considered in its own right within the study of Islamic thought. Focusing on the Ḥizb al-naṣr (Litany of Support) attributed to ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī (d. 1166) and still recited today within the Qādiriyya order, it argues that such devotional texts possess a distinctly doctrinal dimension, articulating metaphysical principles akin to those developed in the school of Ibn ʿArabī and his commentators. A close reading of the Ḥizb al-naṣr reveals a sophisticated theological and metaphysical background that contrasts sharply with the anti-intellectual image often associated with al-Jīlānī and his Ḥanbalī milieu. While the litany makes little explicit use of ontological terminology, its underlying vision resonates with Akbarian metaphysical themes and may reflect early intersections between Qādirī heritage and emerging doctrines of the Akbari tradition. By reconsidering the Ḥizb al-naṣr as an instance of “Sufi philosophy” in its own right, this study invites a broader reflection on the intellectual and doctrinal scope of Sufi devotional writing.

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Mysticism and Ethics in Islam (open access) (Sheikh Zayed Series for Arabic and Islamic Texts and Studies; American University of Beirut Press, 2022)

Free publication

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